「シュメル」あるいは「シュメール」
ここから文明というものが始まりました。いわゆる「チグリス・ユーフラテス文明」ですね。
というか、それ以前に文明があったとしても、痕跡が残っていなければ確認しようがありません。石器とか土器は痕跡ですが「文字」があることが文明らしいので、「最古の文字＝最古の文明」ということになります。ですから、文字のない文化（って形容矛盾ですが）は文明とは言わないのです。[1]
それ以前にも「文字」はあったかも知れません。でも、現在まで残っていなければそれは文明ではありません。
シュメル文化は粘土板に文字が書かれていたので、それが現在まで残っています。亀甲文字も残っています。エジプトのパピルスも残っています。
古代ギリシャもパピルスに書いていたらしいですが、残っているのでしょうか。私の知る限りプラトンの著作などは書写されつづけて残っているのであって、原本は残っていないでしょう。文化ではあっても、文明としては証拠がないと言うことですよね。[2]
この本の最初に年表が載っていて「紀元前八〇〇〇 新石器時代」「農耕開始」「最古のトークン」「七〇〇〇年後半 最古のスタンプ印章」とあって、その後に「○○文化期」が三つ続きます。そして「三二〇〇 ウルク古拙文書出土」とあります。
文字とは
そういう意味では、文明の始まりは最古の文字が残っている紀元前3200年頃に始まったということになるでしょうか。
ここで問題になるのは、「文字とは何か」ということです。この本には明確な定義はないようです。「現在わかっている最古の文字は前三二〇〇年頃の絵文字であり、ウルク古拙文字と言われている。」（P.34）
「絵文字」と「絵」
ラスコーの壁画は40,000年前、クロマニョン人が描いたとされています。[wiki(JP)]
最も古い洞窟壁画は、スペインのラパシエガ洞窟、マルトラビエソ洞窟、アルタレス洞窟の壁画で、約6万4000年前のものとされています。[wiki(JP)][3]
「絵」と「らくがき」の違いは何でしょうか。「偶然の傷」とは明らかに違いますよね。そこには「意図して描いた」ということがあります。ですから、絵とらくがきを区別する必要はないと思います。
例えば、木（草）の枝が折れていたとき、偶然引っかかって折れた可能性もあれば、何かの合図（帰り道の目印とか）のために意図的に折った可能性もあります。石になにか別のもので傷や模様をつけたらどうでしょう。
「壁画」と「絵文字」
「文字は手紙を書く必要から生まれたとシュメル人は考えていたことになる。」（P.33）つまり、話し言葉との違いは、意思（意図）を時間と空間を超えて存在させるということです。そのことから言うと、壁画と絵文字の違いは持ち運べるかどうかということになります。
絵画と文字
紐の結び目などで意思を伝える文化がたくさんあります。これも「文字」と呼んで良いと思います。ただ、紐などは石版や粘土板に比べて速くに風化してしまうので、時代を超えて残ることは難しいのです。ギリシャとエジプトの違いは気候（湿度）の違いで、パピルスが残ったかどうかも大きいでしょう。
人類最古の発明は赤ちゃんを背負うおぶり紐だという話もありますが、残念ながら紐は残りません。
それらは、社会的に受け継がれる文化なのです。言葉も同じですね。
その点、文字というのは異質です。社会を超えて存続するからです。言葉からも独立しています。失われてしまった言葉すら残ることが出来るからです。
それは外的なもの。いわば、もう一つの自然となります。道具も、残るものは同じですね。それが使われなくなっても（使う必要性が無くなっても）後世の人が、その使用目的や使用方法を再現できます。
絵画や建築、織物などの技法で現代（つまり後世）の人が再現を試みることがあります。葦で船を造ったり。
でも、常に気をつけなければならないのは、あくまでもこちらの目（思考）であちらを見ているという事です。こちらの都合の良いように解釈している可能性があるのですから。[4][5]
最古の文字
まだ発見されていない洞窟壁画もたくさんあると思います。それにある日突然ある人が絵を描き始めたかどうかもわかりません。
偶然のキズから絵画に、絵文字から文字への変化は徐々に起こったと考えるのが自然なのではないでしょうか。
ただ、文字は「中間」「曖昧さ」を嫌います。意思、意図の表示ですから当然ですよね。法律や数量化が曖昧であっていいはずはありません。[6]
現実はアナログで、はっきりしないことが多い、というかはっきりするものではないのです。だから、文字から来る災難はすべて文字そのものに原因があります（文字の背後に原因を求めてしまう気持ちもわかります）。[7][8]
時間・空間を超えて残るということ
「書写材料としての紙の優位は動かないものの、二〇世紀末から多くの記録はCDやフロッピー・ディスクに収められるようになった。これらは紙よりもはるかに多くの情報を記録できるが、火災に遭ったらパソコンやフロッピー・ディスクの記録は残らない。だが粘土板は残る。」（P.51）「前四〇〇〇年期末期のシュメル人の都市国家から始まり、前三三〇年のアケメネス朝の滅亡で終わる古代オリエント史の全貌を、一等資料である粘土板文書を厳密に読んで再現するとなると、どのくらいの時間がかかるのだろうか。気の遠くなるような話である。」（P.52）[9]
「残る」それも、「変わらずに残る」ということはどういうことでしょうか。現代科学では、人間の体もつねに物質が入れ替わって全体を形成しているといわれます（『動的平衡』）。石や砂を構成する分子・原子も入れ替わっているでしょう（つねに外界と入れ替わっている）。物質、特に生命は外界と関わり合い、変化することによって存在しているのです。
文化・社会・歴史の始まり
「粘土板読み」が解読したことから、当時のいろいろなことがわかっています。男女の関係、女流文学の始まり、学校、法律、戦争、・・・。読み物としてもとても面白いです（横文字の名前が苦手な私は、殆ど人物を覚えられません。混乱するばかりです）(^_^;)。
歴史に興味がある人も、小説に興味がある人も、法律に興味がある人にもとても面白く読めると思います。著者の文才はすごいと思います。
しかし、それらは「現代の眼」から見たものです。当時の人がどのように思っていたのかは知る由もありません。
戦争で人を殺すこと、神様の生贄になること、主人の死で殉死する人、その人達がどのように考えていたのか、本当のところはわかりません。私たちがわかるのは、あるいはわかろうとするのは現在の私たちから見たものです。でもそれ以外にはありえません。私たちがどう思うか。むしろ個々人が自分でどう思うかということしかないのです。
ただし、私たちは自分がどう思うかと同時に、他人（過去の人、未来の人、現在の人）の考えていることを慮ることはできるし、そのための努力は続けて行かなければならないでしょう。
そう強く思いました。
⟨impressions⟩
"Sumer" or "Sumer"
Civilization started from here. So-called "Tigris Euphrates civilization".
In fact, even if there was a civilization before that, there is no way to confirm it if there are no traces left. Stone tools and earthenware are traces, but it seems to be a civilization that there are "characters", so it means "oldest character = oldest civilization". Therefore, a culture without letters (although it is a contradiction) is not called a civilization. [1]
There may have been "characters" before that. But if it doesn't remain until now, it's not a civilization.
In Sumerian culture, letters were written on clay tablets, so it remains to this day. The turtle shell script also remains. Egyptian papyrus remains.
It seems that ancient Greece also wrote in papyrus, but is it still there? As far as I know, Plato's writings have been copied and remain, and the originals will not remain. Even if it is a culture, it means that there is no evidence as a civilization. [2]
There is a chronological table at the beginning of this book, which says "800 BC Neolithic", "Farming started", "Oldest token", "Late 700 BC, oldest stamp seal", and then. Three "○○ cultural periods" continue. And there is "320, excavated from the old Uruk document".
What are characters?
In that sense, does it mean that the beginning of civilization began around 3200 BC, when the oldest letters remain?
The question here is, "What are letters?" There doesn't seem to be a clear definition in this book. "The oldest known character at present is the pictograph around 320 BC, which is said to be the Uruk ancient character." (P.34)
"Emoji" and "Picture"
Lascaux's mural painting is said to have been painted by the Cro-Magnon Man 40,000 years ago. [wiki] [wiki (JP)]
The oldest cave paintings are the Lapa Siega Cave, Martra Vieso Cave and Altares Cave in Spain, which are dated to about 64,000 years ago. [wiki (JP)] [3]
What is the difference between "picture" and "rakugaki"? It's clearly different from "accidental wounds". There is something that says "I drew it intentionally." So I don't think it's necessary to distinguish between paintings and scribbles.
For example, when a branch of a tree (grass) was broken, it may have been accidentally caught and broken, or it may have been intentionally broken for some signal (such as a mark on the way back). Why don't you scratch or pattern the stone with something else?
"Mural" and "Emoji"
"The Sumerians thought that letters were born from the need to write letters." (P.33) In other words, the difference from spoken language is that the intention (intention) exists beyond time and space. .. From that point of view, the difference between murals and emojis is whether they can be carried around.
Paintings and characters
There are many cultures that convey intentions through knots of strings. I think this can also be called a "character". However, strings and the like weather faster than lithographs and clay tablets, so it is difficult to survive over time. The difference between Greece and Egypt is the difference in climate (humidity), and it may be that papyrus remains.
It is said that the oldest invention of humankind is a strap that carries a baby, but unfortunately no strap remains.
They are a socially inherited culture. The words are the same.
In that respect, letters are different. Because it survives beyond society. It is also independent of words. This is because even the lost words can remain.
It's external. So to speak, it becomes another nature. The tools that remain are the same. Even if it is no longer used (even if it is no longer necessary to use it), posterity can reproduce its purpose and method of use.
Modern (that is, posterity) people may try to reproduce with techniques such as painting, architecture, and weaving. Build a ship with reeds.
However, what you should always be careful about is that you are looking over there with your own eyes (thinking). It may be interpreted in a way that is convenient for you. [4] [5]
oldest characters
I think there are many cave paintings that have not been discovered yet. I don't even know if one day suddenly someone started painting.
It seems natural to think that the change from accidental scratches to paintings and from pictograms to letters gradually occurred.
However, characters dislike "intermediate" and "ambiguity". It is natural because it is an indication of intention and intention. Laws and quantification cannot be ambiguous. [6]
The reality is analog, often unclear, or unclear. Therefore, all the calamities that come from the letters are caused by the letters themselves (you can also see the feeling of seeking the cause behind the letters). [7] [8]
Remaining beyond time and space
"Although paper's dominance as a writing material remains unchanged, many records have been stored on CDs and floppy disks since the end of the 20th century. They can record much more information than paper, but fire. If you encounter a fire, you will not have a record of your computer or floppy disk, but you will still have a clay plate. "(P.51)" Beginning with the Schmel people's urban nation at the end of 4000 BC How long would it take to rigorously read and reproduce the first-class material, the clay plate document, to recreate the whole picture of the ancient Orient history that ended with the fall of the Akemenes dynasty? It's a daunting story. " (P.52) [9]
What does it mean to "remain" and "remain unchanged"? In modern science, it is said that substances are constantly replaced in the human body to form the whole (" Dynamic equilibrium ”). The molecules and atoms that make up stones and sand will also be replaced (always replaced with the outside world). Matter, especially life, exists by interacting with and changing the outside world.
The beginning of culture, society and history
From the decipherment of "clay tablet reading", various things at that time are known. Relationships between men and women, the beginning of women's writing, schools, law, war, ... It's also very interesting to read (I'm not good at horizontal names, I can hardly remember people. I'm just confused) (^ _ ^;).
I think it will be very interesting to read for those who are interested in history, those who are interested in novels, and those who are interested in law. I think the author's literary talent is amazing.
But they are from the "modern eye". There is no way to know what people at that time thought.
I don't really know what they thought about killing people in war, sacrificing God, or dying from the death of their master. What we know or try to understand is what we see today. But there is no other way. What do we think Rather, it's just what each individual thinks about himself.
However, we can consider what others (past, future, present) are thinking at the same time as what we think, and we will have to continue our efforts to do so. ..
I thought so strongly.
"Sumer" or "Sumer"
Civilization started from here. So-called "Tigris Euphrates civilization".
In fact, even if there was a civilization before that, there is no way to confirm it if there are no traces left. Stone tools and earthenware are traces, but it seems to be a civilization that there are "characters", so it means "oldest character = oldest civilization". Therefore, a culture without letters (although it is a contradiction) is not called a civilization. [1]
There may have been "characters" before that. But if it doesn't remain until now, it's not a civilization.
In Sumerian culture, letters were written on clay tablets, so it remains to this day. The turtle shell script also remains. Egyptian papyrus remains.
It seems that ancient Greece also wrote in papyrus, but is it still there? As far as I know, Plato's writings have been copied and remain, and the originals will not remain. Even if it is a culture, it means that there is no evidence as a civilization. [2]
There is a chronological table at the beginning of this book, which says "800 BC Neolithic", "Farming started", "Oldest token", "Late 700 BC, oldest stamp seal", and then. Three "○○ cultural periods" continue. And there is "320, excavated from the old Uruk document".
What are characters?
In that sense, does it mean that the beginning of civilization began around 3200 BC, when the oldest letters remain?
The question here is, "What are letters?" There doesn't seem to be a clear definition in this book. "The oldest known character at present is the pictograph around 320 BC, which is said to be the Uruk ancient character." (P.34)
"Emoji" and "Picture"
Lascaux's mural painting is said to have been painted by the Cro-Magnon Man 40,000 years ago. [wiki] [wiki (JP)]
The oldest cave paintings are the Lapa Siega Cave, Martra Vieso Cave and Altares Cave in Spain, which are dated to about 64,000 years ago. [wiki (JP)] [3]
What is the difference between "picture" and "rakugaki"? It's clearly different from "accidental wounds". There is something that says "I drew it intentionally." So I don't think it's necessary to distinguish between paintings and scribbles.
For example, when a branch of a tree (grass) was broken, it may have been accidentally caught and broken, or it may have been intentionally broken for some signal (such as a mark on the way back). Why don't you scratch or pattern the stone with something else?
"Mural" and "Emoji"
"The Sumerians thought that letters were born from the need to write letters." (P.33) In other words, the difference from spoken language is that the intention (intention) exists beyond time and space. .. From that point of view, the difference between murals and emojis is whether they can be carried around.
Paintings and characters
There are many cultures that convey intentions through knots of strings. I think this can also be called a "character". However, strings and the like weather faster than lithographs and clay tablets, so it is difficult to survive over time. The difference between Greece and Egypt is the difference in climate (humidity), and it may be that papyrus remains.
It is said that the oldest invention of humankind is a strap that carries a baby, but unfortunately no strap remains.
They are a socially inherited culture. The words are the same.
In that respect, letters are different. Because it survives beyond society. It is also independent of words. This is because even the lost words can remain.
It's external. So to speak, it becomes another nature. The tools that remain are the same. Even if it is no longer used (even if it is no longer necessary to use it), posterity can reproduce its purpose and method of use.
Modern (that is, posterity) people may try to reproduce with techniques such as painting, architecture, and weaving. Build a ship with reeds.
However, what you should always be careful about is that you are looking over there with your own eyes (thinking). It may be interpreted in a way that is convenient for you. [4] [5]
oldest characters
I think there are many cave paintings that have not been discovered yet. I don't even know if one day suddenly someone started painting.
It seems natural to think that the change from accidental scratches to paintings and from pictograms to letters gradually occurred.
However, characters dislike "intermediate" and "ambiguity". It is natural because it is an indication of intention and intention. Laws and quantification cannot be ambiguous. [6]
The reality is analog, often unclear, or unclear. Therefore, all the calamities that come from the letters are caused by the letters themselves (you can also see the feeling of seeking the cause behind the letters). [7] [8]
Remaining beyond time and space
"Although paper's dominance as a writing material remains unchanged, many records have been stored on CDs and floppy disks since the end of the 20th century. They can record much more information than paper, but fire. If you encounter a fire, you will not have a record of your computer or floppy disk, but you will still have a clay plate. "(P.51)" Beginning with the Schmel people's urban nation at the end of 4000 BC How long would it take to rigorously read and reproduce the first-class material, the clay plate document, to recreate the whole picture of the ancient Orient history that ended with the fall of the Akemenes dynasty? It's a daunting story. " (P.52) [9]
What does it mean to "remain" and "remain unchanged"? In modern science, it is said that substances are constantly replaced in the human body to form the whole (" Dynamic equilibrium ”). The molecules and atoms that make up stones and sand will also be replaced (always replaced with the outside world). Matter, especially life, exists by interacting with and changing the outside world.
The beginning of culture, society and history
From the decipherment of "clay tablet reading", various things at that time are known. Relationships between men and women, the beginning of women's writing, schools, law, war, ... It's also very interesting to read (I'm not good at horizontal names, I can hardly remember people. I'm just confused) (^ _ ^;).
I think it will be very interesting to read for those who are interested in history, those who are interested in novels, and those who are interested in law. I think the author's literary talent is amazing.
But they are from the "modern eye". There is no way to know what people at that time thought.
I don't really know what they thought about killing people in war, sacrificing God, or dying from the death of their master. What we know or try to understand is what we see today. But there is no other way. What do we think Rather, it's just what each individual thinks about himself.
However, we can consider what others (past, future, present) are thinking at the same time as what we think, and we will have to continue our efforts to do so. ..
I thought so strongly.
[著者等(プロフィール)]
小林/登志子
1949年、千葉県生まれ。中央大学文学部史学科卒業、同大学大学院修士課程修了。古代オリエント博物館非常勤研究員、立正大学文学部講師等をへて、現在、NHK学園「古代オリエント史」講座講師、中近東文化センター評議員。日本オリエント学会奨励賞受賞。専攻・シュメル学
五千年前のイラクの地で、当時すでに文字やハンコ、学校、法律などを創り出していた民族がいる。それが、今までほとんどその実像が明らかにされてこなかったシュメル民族である。本書は、シュメル文明の遺物を一つ一つ紹介しながら、その歴史や文化を丹念に解説するものである。人類最古の文明にして現代社会の礎を築いた彼らの知られざる素顔とは―。多様かつ膨大な記録から、シュメルの人々の息づかいを今に伝える。
[1] これ自体が文字文化の優越化で、差別意識だと思います。
[2] 「写本」というのはおもしろいです。日本でも写本として残っている本はたくさんあります（『今昔物語』とか）。それぞれ、写本によって異なるところが必ずあります。書き写すときに書き間違えたり、書き写した人の考えで訂正、加筆したり。でも、文字や言葉というのはむしろ変化することによって生き残っていくのではないでしょうか。わたしは、むしろそうやって変化しながらその時々残ってゆく記録の意味が大事なような気がします。記憶も同じです。記憶は『変わらない』のではなく、何度も思い出す、つまり再生産されるものです。再生産されないものは残りません。再生産されたものはその度に変化を受けるのです。
[3] 「7万3000年前、今日の南アフリカにあたる地域に住んでいた初期人類が、石の表面にハッシュタグ（#）のような印を描いた――模様が描かれた石を発見した国際考古学チームは、石に描かれた赤い模様は最古の絵画だと主張する。 」（「ネイチャー」）
[4] もちろん、研究が進んでひっくり返る説もたくさんあります。
[5] 「他文化」「他民族」「他人」等についても同様です。
[6] 「デジタル化」、つまり白黒を付ける（「0」と「1」にする）というのはまさにそれです。
[7] 「恋文（ラブレター）」の楽しさともどかしさと難しさもここにあります。文字の始まりが手紙であったことは面白いです。
[8] 「言葉」も意思（意図）を正しく伝えているか（伝わっているか）どうかはわかりません。ただ、言葉が文字と違うのは、発せられた状況や、言葉の調子、身振りなどと総合してとらえることができるのが文字と決定的に違います。「犬！」という言葉は、状況によって「かわいい！」とか「キツネじゃない」とか「危ない、逃げろ―」とかの意味になります。だから、ラブレターにも伝わらないもどかしさがありますし、面と向かって言葉で伝えたほうが、誠意（真意）が伝わりやすいということがあるでしょう。
[9] 粘土板もいつかは壊れます。風化することもあれば、戦争で破壊されることもあります。紙は粘土板より風化や火に弱いです。水（湿気）にも弱い。フロッピー・ディスクやCDは消えることが前提ですから、一種の時限爆弾のようなものです（笑）。
